Fast food restaurant Essay Example for Free

Fast food restaurant Essay The pace of modern life is fast, and nowhere is it faster than in America. We want fast transportation, fast communication, fast computers, fast photos, fast music, fast repairs, and fast service from the businesses we patronize. It is from the last of these that we got fast food. At first, it was a matter of fast service. Fountain and Fast Food Service was the title of a trade magazine, which published statements like this from 1951: The partners have become old hands at spotting the type of conventioneer that will patronize their fast food service. Gradually service disappeared, and in 1954 we find fast food by itself in the title Fountain and Fast Food. Incidentally, the trade magazine renamed itself Fast Food by 1960. In February of that year, the magazine noted, Delicate scallops are really fast food because they come ready to cook. And in July it remarked, Fast food type restaurants do the lions share of business for breakfast and noon meals eaten out. The fast food revolution was a quick success throughout the land, and two decades later it was conquering the world. The U. S.outcry against infiltration from the south is matched in vehemence by our neighbors outcry against fast-food imperialism and the gradual Americanization of their own societies. noted the Christian Science Monitor in 1982. Thanks to fast food, families that formerly ate home cooking now eat out or bring back take-home fast food in record numbers. Its virtue is speed, not quality. Its less than ideal nutritional value may have influenced the coining of another term twenty years later, one that also puts a four-letter epithet in front of food: junk food (1973). Gale Encyclopedia of US History: Fast FoodTop. Home Library History, Politics Society US History Encyclopedia Fast food is what one eats in the vast majority of Americas restaurants. The term denotes speed in both food preparation and customer service, as well as speed in customer eating habits. The restaurant industry, however, has traditionally preferred the designation quick service. For hourly wage earners—whether factory hands or store clerks—take-out lunch wagons and sit-down lunch counters appeared at factory gates, streetcar stops, and throughout downtown districts in the late nineteenth century. For travelers, lunch counters also appeared in railroad stations nationwide. Fried food prevailed for its speed of preparation, as did sandwich fare and other fixings that could be held in the hand and rapidly eaten, quite literally, on the run. Novelty foods, such as hot dogs, hamburgers, french fries, came to dominate, first popularized at various worlds fairs and at the nations resorts. Soft drinks and ice cream desserts also became a mainstay. Thus, fast food also came to imply diets high in fat and caloric intake. By the end of the twentieth century, the typical American consumed some three hamburgers and four orders of french fries a week. Roughly a quarter of all Americans bought fast food every day. The rise of automobile ownership in the United States brought profound change to the restaurant industry, with fast food being offered in a variety of drive-in restaurant formats. Mom-and-pop enterprise was harnessed, largely through franchising, in the building of regional and national restaurant chains: Howard Johnsons, Dairy Queen, Burger King, Kentucky Fried Chicken, Pizza Hut, and Taco Tico. Place-product-packaging was brought forcefully to the fore; each restaurant in a chain variously shares the same logo, color scheme, architectural design motif, and point-of-purchase advertising, all configured in attention-getting, signlike buildings. Typically, fast food restaurants were located at the roadside, complete with driveways, parking lots, and, later, drive-through windows for those who preferred to eat elsewhere, including those who ate in their cars as dashboard diners. Critical to industry success was the development of paper and plastic containers that kept food hot and facilitated carry-out. Such packaging, because of the volume of largely nonbiodegradable waste it creates, has become a substantial environmental problem. In 2000, Mcdonalds—the largest quick-service chain—operated at some 13,755 locations in the United States and Canada. The companys distinctive golden arches have spread worldwide, well beyond North America. Abroad, fast food came to stand as an important symbol of American cultural, if not economic, prowess. And, just as it did at home, fast food became, as well, a clear icon of modernity. Historically, fast food merchandising contributed substantially to the quickening pace of American life through standardization. By the beginning of the twenty-first century, it fully embraced mass production and mass marketing techniques, reduced to the scale of a restaurant. Chains of restaurants, in turn, became fully rationalized within standardized purchasing, marketing, and management systems. Such a system depends on a pool of cheap, largely unskilled labor, the quick service restaurant industry being notorious for its low wages and, accordingly, its rapid turnover of personnel. Bibliography Jakle, John A. , and Keith A. Sculle. Fast Food: Roadside Restaurants in the Automobile Age. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999. Pillsbury, Richard. No Foreign Food: The American Diet and Place. Boulder, Colo. : Westview Press, 1998. Schlosser, Eric. Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal. New York: HarperCollins, 2002. —John A. Jakle Gale Encyclopedia of Food Culture: Fast FoodTop Home Library Food Cooking Food Culture Encyclopedia What is termed fast food in the United States today most commonly consists of hot, freshly prepared, and wrapped food items, served to customers across a counter or through a drive-up window. Known as both fast food and quick-service food in the restaurant industry, these items are routinely sold and delivered in an amount of time ranging from a few seconds to several minutes; they now vary widely in food type, encompassing virtually all kinds of meats, preparation methods, and ethnic cuisines. Inexpensive hamburgers and french fried potatoes are still the products most readily identified as fast food, but the list of items sold in the format continually increases. Fried fish and shellfish, hot dogs, chicken, pizza, roast beef, and pasta are commonly sold at quick-service outlets. In addition to these staples, many quick-service restaurants sell a broad menu of Americanized Mexican, Greek, and Chinese foods. Some fast-food outlets offer specialty items, such as sushi, clams, or ribs, and others even sell complete home-cooked meals over their counters. Though menus and delivery formats vary greatly, fast foods chief common denominators include immediate customer service, packaging to go, and inexpensive pricing. The precise origins of fast food are vague, probably predating written history. Hungry people are as old as civilization itself, as are entrepreneurs eager to satisfy their hunger. Food vendors in ancient cities sold prepared items to passersby on the street. The actual foods varied greatly, depending on period and culture, but they generally comprised simple, inexpensive fare sold to people of modest means. Immigrants brought a variety of food styles to America, often preserving these for decades as a comforting connection with their ethnic past. Though many immigrant foodways were elaborate and ritualistic, most groups had one or two simple items that they consumed on a daily basis. As a rule, immigrant groups preferred their indigenous grains: corn from the Americas, rice from Asia, and wheat from Europe. Often these served as the basis for the peasant foods of their homelands. Pasta and flat breads came over with Italians; tortillas, beans, and tamales arrived with northbound Mexicans; and Germans brought dark breads, along with a variety of fatty sausages (which later mutated into the hot dog). Asian immigrants continued to eat rice as the basis of their diet. In the early twentieth century fast food remained primarily the fare of the masses. Vendors wheeled their pushcarts daily to factory gates, selling their wares to hungry workers. Often catering to the tastes of the particular factorys dominant ethnic group, they charged customers pennies for basic items such as sausages, meatballs, or stew. Though popular among male industrial workers, this pushcart version of fast food never became mainstream cuisine. The urban diner was the transitional phase between the vendors pushcart and modern fast food. Most early diners were small restaurants, with limited seating, sometimes constructed out of converted railway carriages or streetcars. They served simple foods to working-class customers on a short-order basis, usually cooking each meal individually when ordered. Menus varied, but fried foods were common. Though diners often emphasized speed in delivering food, customers routinely lingered before and after eating. The hamburger still stands out as the single most important American fast food, though the precise origin of this meat sandwich is the subject of historical disagreement. People have eaten chopped beef throughout the ages, and it was long a fixture in many world cultures. The lineage of the American hamburger seems to point directly, as its name indicates, back to the German city of Hamburg. First appearing on American restaurant menus in the mid-nineteenth century, ground beef patties bore the title hamburg steak. By the centurys close, vendors regularly sold meatballs wrapped in slices of bread at county fairs and summer festivals. Regional legends attribute the invention of this snack to several different individuals, but its true originator remains a mystery. The Rise of Modern Fast Food Our modern image of the fast-food restaurant dates back to 1916, when Walt Anderson began selling hamburger sandwiches from an outdoor stand on a Wichita street corner. Anderson simply flattened a meatball and placed it between two halves of a bun. His sandwich quickly became popular, attracting long lines of hungry buyers. By 1921, Anderson had joined local insurance broker Edgar Billy Ingram to form the White Castle System. After opening several identical restaurants in Wichita during their first year, the partners quickly spread their business to neighboring cities, then to nine major urban areas throughout the Midwest and on the East Coast. What separated the White Castle System from earlier short-order restaurants was its very streamlined menu, comprising only hamburgers, coffee, Coca-Cola, and pie; a uniform architectural style; and strict standardization of food quality, preparation methods, and employee performance. By the close of the 1920s, White Castles aggressive marketing and rapid spread had made the hamburger one of the most popular foods in America. Other entrepreneurs soon noticed White Castles success in the hamburger business. Very closely copying White Castles products, architecture, and company name, competing new chains also thrived, carrying the hamburger craze across the nation to smaller cities and towns. The White Tower chain appeared in 1925, eventually challenging White Castles dominance in several northern cities. Krystals, opened in 1929 in Chattanooga, soon became the hamburger powerhouse of the southeastern states. White Castles hamburger sandwich, along with its many imitators, became a daily staple for many working-class Americans. It proved so successful, in fact, that by 1930 the president of the American Restaurant Association identified the fast-food hamburger as the most important food item in the nation. Hamburgers became even more a mainstream food during the 1930s. The larger restaurant chains began marketing their products to middle-class buyers, and even more Americans became burger lovers. Despite the harsh economy of the Great Depression, most fast-food chains continued to thrive, and in many cases grew considerably. Most continued selling the White Castle–style hamburger, but late in the decade the Big Boy chain spread east from California, introducing its new double-decker hamburger sandwich along the way. By the end of the Depression, America was a solidly hamburger-eating culture. After prospering in the Depression, however, the fast-food industry suffered a serious setback during World War II. Shortages of necessary foodstuffs, such as meat, sugar, tomatoes, and coffee, meant limited menu offerings and often a significant loss of business. Attempting to continue providing meals to their customers, fast-food restaurants experimented with different items that were still in abundance, including soy patties, chili, and french fried potatoes. Even more damaging than commodity shortages was the very low unemployment rate, which meant that most workers bypassed the restaurant industry in favor of higher-paying work. Adjusting to this labor shortage, chains soon replaced their all-male workforce with women and teenagers, two groups who would become their most common employees. Despite attempts to find palatable alternative foods, and despite the shifts in workforce, much of the fast-food industry was a casualty of the war; by 1945, more than half of Americas restaurants had closed down, including several of the major fast-food chains. Rebuilding the fast-food industry after the war proved a slow process. No single chain emerged to claim dominance, and little innovation occurred. Individual companies struggled to restore their prewar prosperity, and new regional chains tried to gain a foothold. Suffering the effects of escalating costs and still under the threat of continued shortages due to unstable food supplies in war-torn countries, fast-food restaurants often had to double prices to remain in business. As population shifted from Americas cities to suburbia during the 1950s, the fast-food industry quickly followed. Early chains such as White Castle and White Tower, resisting moving to the suburbs, were quickly eclipsed by upstart franchised chains. Burger King and McDonalds outlets became common fixtures at suburban crossroads, selling burgers, fries, and shakes to hungry families. Burger Kings Jim McLamore and McDonalds Ray Kroc each sought to build one of his restaurants in every American town, and they opened hundreds of new Burger Kings and McDonalds each year in the 1960s. To accomplish this rapid expansion, they relied heavily on franchise investors, enforced strict product uniformity throughout their chains, and aggressively advertised in every newly opened territory. With McDonalds and Burger Kings success, Burger Chef outlets soon appeared nearby. Arbys, Kentucky Fried Chicken, and Taco Bell were not far behind. By the late 1960s, fast food no longer meant just hamburger restaurants, but had diversified to include quick-service pizza, roast beef, chicken, and tacos. To give an idea of the dimensions to which the fast-food industry has grown, in 1999 Americans consumed over 26 billion pounds of beef, much of it as hamburgers. In that year McDonalds alone had more than ten thousand restaurants in the United States, from which it grossed in excess of $13 billion in revenue. Criticism of Fast Food Despite the widespread popularity of fast food in modern American culture, critics abound. Since the 1930s, articles and books have condemned the industry, exposing allegedly poor sanitary conditions, unhealthy food products, related environmental problems, and unfair working conditions. Whether it warrants the attention or not, the fast-food industry is still regularly cited for exploiting young workers, polluting, and contributing to obesity and other serious health problems among American consumers. American beef consumption, and more specifically the fast-food hamburger industry, is often blamed for the burning of the Amazon rain forests to make way for more grazing lands for beef cattle. Early foes of fast food cited the deplorable filth of many hamburger stands, in addition to claiming that the beef ground for their sandwiches was either spoiled, diseased, or simply of low quality. In fact, many critics maintained that much of the meat used in fast-food hamburgers came from horse carcasses. The high fat content of fast food was also controversial. Despite deceptive industry claims about the high quality and the health benefits of their products, in the 1920s and 1930s concerned nutritionists warned the public about the medical dangers of regular burger consumption. This distrust and criticism of fast food continue today, extending even further to include dire warnings about the industrys use of genetically modified and antibiotic-laden beef products. Most major chains have responded to recent attacks by prominently posting calorie and nutritional charts in their restaurants, advertising fresh ingredients, and offering alternatives to their fried foods. Despite a few more health-conscious items on the menu, fast-food chains now aggressively advertise the concept that bigger is better, offering large super-size or biggie portions of french fries, soft drinks, and milkshakes. Critics point to this marketing emphasis as a reason for an excessive and greatly increasing per-capita caloric intake among fast-food consumers, resulting in fast-growing rates of obesity in the United States. Increased litter is another problem that critics have blamed on the fast-food industry. Selling their products in paper wrappings and paper bags, early outlets created a source of litter that had not previously existed. Wrappers strewn about city streets, especially those close to fast-food restaurants, brought harsh criticism, and often inspired new local ordinances to address the problem. Some municipalities actually forced chains to clean up litter that was imprinted with their logos, but such sanctions were rare. Fast-food wrappers became part of the urban, and later suburban, landscape. Since bags and wrappers were crucial in the delivery of fast food, the industry as a whole continued to use disposable packaging, superficially assuaging public criticism by providing outside trash receptacles for the discarded paper. Years later, environmentalists again attacked the industry for excessive packaging litter, criticizing both the volume and the content of the refuse. By the early 1970s, the harshest criticisms focused more on the synthetic materials used in packaging, and less on the carelessly discarded paper. Critics derided the industrys use of styrofoam sandwich containers and soda cups, claiming that these products were not sufficiently biodegradable and were clogging landfills. Facing mounting opposition from a growing environmental movement, most of the major chains returned to packaging food in paper wrappings or small cardboard boxes. Labor activists have criticized fast-food chains tendency to employ inexpensive teenage workers. Usually offering the lowest possible wages, with no health or retirement benefits, these restaurants often find it difficult hiring adults for stressful, fast-paced jobs. Many critics claim that the industry preys on teenagers, who will work for less pay and are less likely to organize. Though these accusations may have merit, the industrys reliance on teenage labor also has inherent liabilities, such as a high employee turnover rate, which result in substantial recruiting and training costs. Companies have countered criticism about their use of teenage workers with the rationale that they offer young people entry-level work experience, teaching them: both skills and responsibility. Despite the relentless attacks, hundreds of millions of hungry customers eat fast food daily. The media constantly remind American consumers about its supposed evils. Most are conscious of the health risks from fatty, greasy meals; most realize that they are being served by a poorly paid young worker; and if they choose to ponder it, most are aware that the excessive packaging causes millions of tons of trash each year. But they continue to purchase and eat fast food on a regular basis. Fast food remains central to the American diet because it is inexpensive, quick, convenient, and predictable, and because it tastes good. Even more important, Americans eat fast food because it is now a cultural norm. As American culture homogenized and became distinctively American in the second half of the twentieth century, fast food, and especially the hamburger, emerged as the primary American ethnic food. Just as the Chinese eat rice and Mexicans eat tamales, Americans eat burgers. And fast food has grown even beyond being just a distinctive ethnic food. Since the 1960s, the concept has extended far beyond the food itself, with the term becoming a common descriptor for other quick-service operations, even a metaphor for many of the negative aspects of mainstream American life. Theorists and pundits sometimes use the term fast food to denigrate American habits, institutions, and values, referring to them as elements of a fast-food society. In fact, fast-food has become a frequently used adjective, implying not only ready availability but also superficiality, mass-produced standardization, lack of authenticity, or just poor quality. In the last two decades of the twentieth century, fast food gained additional economic and cultural significance, becoming a popular American export to nations around the world. Some detractors claim that it is even deliberately used by the United States, as a tool of cultural imperialism. The appearance of a McDonalds or Kentucky Fried Chicken restaurant on the streets of a foreign city signals to many the demise of indigenous culture, replacing another countrys traditional practices and values with American materialism. In fact, the rapid spread of American fast food is probably not an organized conspiracy, rather more the result of aggressive corporate marketing strategies. Consumers in other countries are willing and able to buy fast-food products, so chains are quick to accommodate demand. Thought of around the world as American food, fast food continues its rapid international growth. Bibliography Boas, Max, and Steve Chain. Big Mac: The Unauthorized Story of McDonalds. New York: Dutton, 1976. Emerson, Robert, L. Fast Food: The Endless Shakeout. New York: Lebhar-Friedman, 1979. Halberstam, David. The Fifties. New York: Villard Books, 1993. Chapter 11 discusses the origins of the McDonalds empire. Hogan, David Gerard. Selling em by the Sack: White Castle and the Creation of American Food. New York: New York University Press, 1997. Jakle, John A. , and Keith A. Sculle. Fast Food: Roadside Restaurants in the Automobile Age. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999. Langdon, Philip. Orange Roofs, Golden Arches: The Architecture of American Chain Restaurants. New York: Knopf, 1986. McLamore, James, W. The Burger King: Jim McLamore and the Building of an Empire. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998. Mariani, John. America Eats Out. New York: William Morrow, 1991. Schlosser, Eric. Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2001. Tennyson, Jeffrey. Hamburger Heaven: The Illustrated History of the Hamburger. New York: Hyperion, 1993. Witzel, Michael Karl. The American Drive-In: History and Folklore of the Drive-In Restaurant in the Car Culture. Osceola, Wisc. : Motorbooks International, 1994. —David Gerard Hogan AMG AllGame Guide: Fast FoodTop Home Library Entertainment Arts Games Guide Release Date: 1989 Genre: Action. Style: Maze Random House Word Menu: categories related to fast foodTop Home Library Literature Language Word Menu Categories Random House Word Menu by Stephen Glazier For a list of words related to fast food, see: Cuisines, Meals, and Restaurants fast food: cheap, mass-produced dishes served quickly at walk-in or drive-in outlets; convenience food Wikipedia on Answers. com: Fast foodTop Home Library Miscellaneous Wikipedia For other uses, see Fast food (disambiguation). A typical fast food meal in the United States includes a hamburger, french fries, and a soft drink. Pictured here are burgers from In-N-Out Burger McDonalds, Kentucky Fried Chicken and Pizza Hut fast food restaurants in the United Arab Emirates Fast food is the term given to food that can be prepared and served very quickly. While any meal with low preparation time can be considered to be fast food, typically the term refers to food sold in a restaurant or store with preheated or precooked ingredients, and served to the customer in a packaged form for take-out/take-away. The term fast food was recognized in a dictionary by Merriam–Webster in 1951. Outlets may be stands or kiosks, which may provide no shelter or seating,[1] or fast food restaurants (also known as quick service restaurants). Franchise operations which are part of restaurant chains have standardized foodstuffs shipped to each restaurant from central locations. [2] Contents 1 History 1. 1 Pre-modern Europe 1. 2 United Kingdom 1. 3 United States 2 On the go 2. 1 Filling stations 2. 2 Street vendors and concessions 3 Cuisine 3. 1 Variants 4 Business 5 Employment 6 Globalization 7 Criticism 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links History.

Oscar Wilde’s Essay Example for Free

Oscar Wilde’s Essay The following essay will examine British Literature in two fold: the first being that of Oscar Wilde’s contribution to British Literature and the second being feminism in British Literature in the 1800’s and on. It is hoped that focusing on two separate but entangled subjects will make the paper more accessible and therefore broader in scope and understanding of the reader to British Literature. Peacocks and Sunflowers:Oscar Wilde’s â€Å"Immoral Aestheticism† as an Escape from Reality into the Realm of Beauty Gilbert, the author’s alter ego in Oscar Wilde’s essay â€Å"The Critic as Artist† (originally published in 1888) declared that â€Å"[a]ll art is immoral† (274), and that phrase turned into a manifesto for the â€Å"immoral aestheticism† doctrine of the famous dandy who decorated rooms with peacock feathers and showed in public with a sunflower in the buttonhole. The writer was condemned by contemporaries as a breacher of Victorian ‘moral’ style of living but justified by successors. As Ellmann explains, â€Å"[s]in is more useful to society than martyrdom, since it is self-expressive not self-repressive† and thus contributes more significantly to the acute goal of â€Å"the liberation of the personality† (Ellmann 310). The man who used to be convicted of the offence of â€Å"gross indecency† is praised now as an icon of decadent and modernist style, a revolutionary in aesthetics and ethics, and a prophet of beauty which is above and outside any boundaries. The concept of art and beauty as abstract notions being unrelated to the narrowly dichotomous morals takes a key position in Wilde’s oeuvre. Today’s critics are never tired in their coining of appropriate definitions for the writer’s aesthetic programme. Gillespie, one of the most important researchers of Wilde’s legacy, viewed it as consisting of â€Å"paradoxical gestures† which â€Å"delineate an aesthetic that celebrates the impulse to integrate, amalgamate, and conjoin rather than separate, dissipate, or disperse† (37). Although the writer was aware of â€Å"the grave spiritual dangers involved in a life of immoral action and experiment† (Pearce 164), he underlined the right of an artist to be immoral for the sake of eternal beauty. In his aestheticism, Wilde was an admirer and disciple of essayist and art critic Walter Horatio Pater with the latter’s emphasis on the esthete as a novel kind of being (Murphy 1992; Wood 2002). He was also immersed into the late 19th century cultural milieu as being involved into a polylogue on the topics of art, artist, ethics, and beauty which resulted in the emergence of Decadence and Modernism (Bell 1997). Altogether with the English fin de siecle men of art such as A. C. Swinburne, Walter Pater, Lionel Johnson, Ernest Christopher Dowson, George Moore Symons, and D. G. Rossetti, Wilde researched the concept of aesthetics as being constructed by a person who was proud of â€Å"[his] non-participation †¦ in ethical controversy† (Woodcock 53) and thus freed from the restrictions imposed by society and common law. Oscar Wilde’s â€Å"immoral aestheticism† as an integral part of the decadent and early modernist styles is what the present proposal attempts to look at. It will research Wilde’s critical and fictional legacy in regard to ideas and concepts as pertinent to the new understanding of relationship between art and morals. This proposal attempts to re-examine Oscar Wilde as a theorist of the novel aesthetics, establishing a link between the writer and other theorists and critics to prove that the call for immoral aestheticism was a brilliant attempt to overcome the boredom of reality and enter the world of absolute beauty. Modern Women’s Voices: Sexual Subjectivity in the texts of Victorian and contemporary British women writers Feminism is still one of the most popular critical lenses to zoom into details of history of literature and social life (Brennan 2002; Jackson 1998; Kemp 1997; Scott 1996), and it is proven to be useful within the framework of the given proposal aimed at tracing the common and differentiating points of the two critical periods of British literature. I am especially interested in the late Victorian epoch with its rise of independent women’s suffragist voices and the latest period with its diversity of tones and melodies composed by women writers amidst the turmoil of free speech and re-thinking of common gender values such as career, family, child-rearing, and gender relationships. The novels chosen are The Story of a Modern Woman by Ella Hepworth Dixon (1894), Anna Lombard by Victoria Cross (the pseudonym of Annie Sophie Cory1901), Foreign Parts by Janice Galloway (1994) and Olivia Joules and the Overactive Imagination by Helen Fielding (2004). The earlier and later books are divided by almost a century but despite a temporal distance there are common motives and aspirations which approximate the Victorian ‘New Woman’ and a modern British female as depicted in fiction. The feminist movement of the late Victorian period was pre-conditioned by many factors which made the trend not accidental but seriously grounded in the wider social context being permeated by patriarchal ascendance and rigidness of social structure (Bernstein 1997; Lewis and Ardis 2003). The ‘New Women’ movement that acquired much power during the period from the late 1890s to roughly 1915 featured a range of opinions concerning the heightened role of a female in a modern society (Walls 2002; Mitchell 1999). As Ardis (1990) observed, Dixon went farther than her colleagues in asserting the preciousness and independency of a woman as a self-sustaining creature (see also Fehlbaum 2005), whereas Cross’s Anna Lombard represents another type of the late Victorian womanhood as sacrificing her desires and aspirations for the sake of the traditional familial institution. The most recent books by Galloway and Fielding cannot be straight-forwardly labeled as ‘feminist’ writing, although they utilise some stylistic elements of feminist narration (Greene 1991). Whereas Galloway vividly portrays contemporary women as being able to function outside the patriarchic framework but provides no answer to the question about the appropriateness of such life style, Fielding is often criticised for the attempts to find consensus with a men’s world and, therefore, to abandon the programme of modern Amazons (Marsh 2004). Anyhow, both contemporary British women of letters share specific ideas concerning authorship and the interplay between feminist and non-feminist traditions to the extent that they can be seen as spiritual sisters of their Victorian predecessors. Being equipped with solid theoretical instruments from gender studies and psychology (e. g. Lacanian psychoanalytic theory) to conceptualise the evolution of womanhood and gendered selves in Great Britain throughout a century, I hope to establish a link between late Victorian and recent women’s writings with a special emphasis on the literary features of the female novel. The freshness of the proposal is in the choice of research objects (all the four novels are not enough extensively discussed by academic critics) and the carrying of analysis within the theoretical framework concerning authorship that was proposed by a Russian scholar Michael Bakhtin.

Study Of The Foregrounding Theory English Language Essay

Study Of The Foregrounding Theory English Language Essay 1. Introduction The term Stylistics has been for a long time associated with literary criticism, and stylistics has been considered as a branch of literary criticism. The authors style was the major theme of this field of study. Later on, the focus moved from the study of the authors style to how meanings and effects are produced by literary texts. Thus, there was a critical need to change the field from a branch of literary criticism into a field on its own. Although stylistics has focused on literary works as its raw material of scrutiny, this does not underestimate the importance of stylistics in non-literary texts. Moreover, it is difficult sometimes to draw a clear line between literary stylistics and linguistic stylistics (Jeffries and McIntyre, 2010). In fact the distinction between the two is not the material in of their study, rather than in the objectives of the study. Literary stylistics in this case is concerned with using linguistic techniques to assist in the interpretation of texts, w hereas linguistic stylistics is about doing stylistic analysis in order to test or refine a linguistic model in effect, to contribute to linguistic theory. (Jeffries and McIntyre, 2010: 2). Also, Stylistics depends so much on theories and models from other fields more than it develops theories of its own. It is a combination of many sub-disciplines of linguistics, and other disciplines, such as literary studies and psychology, drawing upon these (sub-) disciplines but not seeking to duplicate or replace them. Based on such disciplines, Stylistics has started as a distinguished field of study which has its own theories and principles. Among these theories, foregrounding theory, which is the subject matter of this paper, has received a special interest from stylisticians. The term refers to specific linguistic devices: deviation and parallelism devices. These devices are usually used in literary texts in a functional and condensed way. They support the possible meaning of the text, i n addition providing the person who reads with the possibility of aesthetic knowledge. According to the theory of foregrounding, literature by employing abnormal forms of language breaks up the readers routine behaviour: commonplace views and perspectives are replaced with new and unexpected insights and sensations. In this method literature keeps or makes individuals conscious of their automatized actions and preconceptions. This paper discusses the foregrounding theory in detail. The paper is organized as follows: first of all, there is a detailed discussion of the origin and historical background of the theory. The Greek, Russian, and European effects on the theory will be discussed. The discussion will move to focus on the principles and assumptions behind the theory. Foregrounding principles of strikingness, effectiveness, time-consumption and universality will be discussed in detail. Once these principles are discussed, devices of deviation and parallelism, which are the main pillars of foregrounding theory, will be discussed and their relation to foregrounding effects will be explained. Once foregrounding devices are discussed, attention will be paid to obvious advantages of the theory in general. Although this theory is a powerful one, it is not surprising at all to find some problems in the theory. These problems will be discussed and possible answers offered to them in literature will be considered as will. Finally, conclusion will be drawn and recomm endation will be offered according to the discussion of the theory in general. 2. Foregrounding Theory With the rapid development of language analysis in the twentieth century, stylistics has come to the view as a powerful discipline which has its own theories such as, Foregrounding Theory, Text World Theory and Schema Theory. The general aim of this discipline is to look at the formal features of a text and find out their significance for the interpretation of that text. Stylistics started with much emphasis on the analysis of literary texts, and then the focus shifted to both literary and non-literary texts (Jeffries and McIntyre, 2010). Irrespective of the type of the text, it remains the raw material of stylisticians. Among the various stylistic theories, foregrounding theory is the most common and powerful one in the literature. The term is very general to the extent that it resists definition. However, many stylisticians have tried to define it. For example, van Peer and Hakemulder (2006) say that the term refers to specific linguistic devices, i.e., deviation and parallelism, that are used in literary texts in a functional and condensed way. Under their definition, such devices can help to add a specific meaning to the text and provide the reader with aesthetic experience. Van Peer and Hakemulder (2006) also tried to show that foregrounding generally means new information contrasted to old information in the text that forms a background against which the new meaning to be understood by the reader. Others restricted its definition to the literary side of the theory. Shen (2007: 169) argues that this theory assumes that poetic language deviates from norms characterized the ordinary use of languag eà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦and that this deviation interferes with cognitive principles and processes to make communication possible. In the same way, Martindale (2007) points out that there are two types of foregrounding. The first type is parallelism which involves repetition while the second type of foregrounding is deviation which is related to the use of specific devices in unusual ways. Similarly, van Peer and Hakemudler (2006) show that deviation is a poetic license to the writer who is exceptionally allowed to deviate from normal rules and expectations surprise the reader and give him a beautiful literary experience. The best examples of deviation would be metaphors, ungrammatical rules, paradox, and so on. Examples of parallelism, on the other hand, would be various forms of figures of speech such as, rhyme, assonance, alliteration, and so on. Such claims about foregrounding make it the opposite of automatization. While automatization schematizes an event, foregrounding breaks this sc hematization and creates a special kind of meaning (Miall and Kuiken, 1994). The roots of this theory go back to the Greek Antiquity. Specifically, to the great philosopher Aristotle who emphasized the use of devices and their importance for foregrounding (van Peer, 2007; Martindale, 2007). Aristotle (ca. 335 BCE, cited in van Peer and Hakemulder, 2006) argues that literary work should be distinguished from other works through the use of strange words, metaphors and unfamiliar terms. Thus, foregrounding started basically as a theory of literature in the Greek philosophy. Later on, Russian Formalists and Czech Structuralists emphasized the importance of foregrounding in literature. According to Martindale (2007), foregrounding in that stage was so much related to novelty. The Russian and Czech theorists were in struggle for maintenance of change in literature. For instance, the Russian Formalist, Shklovsky, points out that the purpose of art is to present the unfamiliar objects in a sophisticated unfamiliar way so that the perception of such objects will be re newed and refreshed in the eyes of the reader (Miall and Kuiken, 1994). Unless this change is continuelously preserved, literature will die. Therefore, foregrounding was the only hope to keep literature alive. Similarly, foregrounding in English literature and stylistics has been used with different meanings. Van Peer and Hakemulder (2006) show that foregrounding in English can refer to a prominent interest that a reader might assign to something in a text during the process of reading. Such prominence is resultant from a special use of some devices located in the text itself. Foregrounding may also refer to analytical tools used to evaluate texts and show their literary, historical and cultural significance. Therefore, the emphasis has always been on foregrounding in literature rather than foregrounding in other genres. So far, discussion was about the theoretical account for foregrounding, yet we have not given any example. To understand what is meant by foregrounding, consider the following example that was planned by Miall and Kuiken (1994). In their discussion of foregrounding in literature, they presented a segment of a story called the Dark Walk: It is a laurel walk, very old, almost gone wild, a lofty midnight tunnel of smooth, sinewy branches. (p392). Through the alliteration of [l] and [s] sounds in the sentence and the metaphoric use of midnight and sinewy, Miall and Kuiken claim that foregrounding passes through three stages. First, defamiliarization which is present in the use of unfamiliar linguistic features which strikes and captures the eye of the reader. Second, such unfamiliar linguistic features forces the reader to slow down and allow time for the feelings arouse by alliteration and metaphor to appear. Third, such feelings create a rich beautiful image of the dark walk in the min d of the reader. To summarize this section, we can say foregrounding is a powerful theory that has started in the Greek philosophy, developed by the Russian and Czech theorists, and flourished in the current century. This theory is based on breaking up rules and norms by implementing devices of deviation and parallelism, yielding an aesthetic experience in the mind of the reader. 3. Principles of the Theory Although it is difficult to delimit the principles and assumptions that underlie the foregrounding theory, this section discusses some general notes which can be considered as basic to the theory in general. Foregrounding and strikingness It is always reported that foregrounding causes defamiliarization especially in literary texts (Miall and Kuiken, 1994; van Peer, 2007; van Peer and Hakemuilder, 2006). Defamiliarization, in turn, strikes the reader because he finds the unexpected. Thus, the way new ideas introduced captures the mind of the reader and triggers his attention. Foregrounding is affective Besides inducing strikingness, defamiliarization helps to evoke the feelings of the reader. Miall and Kuiken (1994: 393) argue that, although available evidence is indirect, it does suggest a relationship between the defamiliarizing effects of foregrounding and the emergence of feeling. Once a reader encounters an unfamiliar text, special area in the mind which is responsible for affect is intensified. Foregrounding and time Since foregrounding texts are striking and evocative, they should take longer time for processing and comprehension. For example, when a reader finds verbs ellipsis or grammatical inversions, he needs much more time to figure out the meaning of the sentence. Also, the use of figurative devices such as metaphors and similes triggers the reader imagination and intensifies his feeling. At this stage, the reader will resort to other similar texts or experiences he has encountered in his life which, in turn, prolong the process of reading. Miall and Kuiken (1994: 395) point out that, Since foregrounding often occurs in clusters of closely related phonetic, grammatical, and semantic features, the sheer density of the processes by which refamiliarization occurs suggests that it takes time to unfold. Foregrounding is universal If foregrounding is striking, affective and time-consuming, are such foregrounding effects universal or related to specific type of individuals? In other words, do foregrounding effects occur in highly trained and sophisticated readers? In fact, many stylisticians have discussed and offered an answer to such question. Van Peer (1986) conducted a study on a group of people for this purpose and he found out that foregrounding effects are present among different readers irrespective of literary background. He found that readers responses are affected by deviation, and deviation makes readers process the text more slowly which, in turns, leads into aesthetic appreciation. Similar observations were reported by Miall and Kuiken (1994) who conducted a study on four groups of readers. Miall and Kuiken were interested in testing how foregrounding is indicator of reading times and readers judgments of strikingness and affect. In conclusion, they found out that the aforementioned effects are pr esent in all groups independent of readers backgrounds or interests. Thus, readers with general linguistics skills and backgrounds will find foregrounding texts striking, affective and challenging. However, none can deny such effects will be higher with people of higher literary background. Also, many questions remain under-researched in this theory. Fore example, when readers concentrate on the way the text is written rather than its content, is that a matter of convention in general or a special property of the text? To put it differently, do readers read literary texts slowly because they already think that literature needs more time to be processed? Or is it a property of foregrounding in general irrespective of the text type or genre? In summary, foregrounding is striking, affective, time-consuming and universal. It surprises the reader by violating the rules. Such violation triggers his feelings and requires much more time to understand and process the text which in turn forces the reader to focus on the way the text is written more than the content. Finally, such effects are claimed to be universal irrespective of the background or literary experience of the reader. 4. Foregrounding Devices Linguistic devices are the main pillars of foregrounding theory. They are the tool which is wonderfully manipulated by writers to produce a piece of art. These devices help the writer to express his ideas in a special way, adding some music to his words or giving an image that stimulates the imagination of the reader. Generally, the foregrounding theory is based on two types of devices: devices of deviation and devices of parallelism (van Peer and Hakemulder, 2006; Shen, 2007). The former refers, as the name indicates, to breaking up rules or expectations. What you expect is not what you read or listen to. Following these devices, the writer attracts his readers attention because when they hear something unexpected, they will look for clues to know what is going on. Devices of deviation include: neologism, metaphor, ungrammatical sentences, archaisms, paradox and oxymoron. Devices of parallelism, on the other hand, are also called figures of speech. They generally involve repetitive and contrasted structures. Thus, some parts or syllables of the word verbal configuration is repeated or contrasted, leading to foregrounding effects on the perception of the reader. The rest of this section sheds light on the main devices used in foregrounding theory. 4.1 Devices of deviation Metaphor: it is defined as, The figure of speech in which a name or descriptive term is transferred to some object different from, but analogous to, that to which it is properly applicable; an instance of this, a metaphorical expression (Oxford English Dictionary). As this definition indicates, metaphors involve a mapping between two conceptual domains which are somehow related to our perceptual system. Thus, a metaphor involves a mapping from a source domain into a target domain. Shen (2007) argues that as far as foregrounding involved, mapping should be characterized by deviation via a relation between two remote concepts, i.e., Education is a ladder. Simile: it is a comparison of one thing with another, esp. as an ornament in poetry or rhetoric (Oxford English Dictionary). Similar to metaphors, similes also involve two nominal expressions. One of them is a source and the other one is a target. The two expressions are usually linked via linkage expressions such as like or as. In foregrounding theory, similes should involve deviation as well, i.e., Education is like a ladder (Shen, 2007: 171). Thus, the linkage is between two remote concepts, usually from more to less accessible object. Such simile is called canonical simile. However, if mapping is from less to more accessible object, this simile is called non-canonical simile, i.e., A ladder is like education (Shen, 2007: 171). Shen argues that foregrounding often depends on non-canonical similes. Oxymoron: A rhetorical figure by which contradictory or incongruous terms are conjoined so as to give point to the statement or expression; an expression, in its superficial or literal meaning self-contradictory or absurd, but involving a point (Oxford English Dictionary). Such literary device is frequently used in literature. It is one of the basic pillars of foregrounding theory since deviation is the main feature of this device. Shen (2007: 173-174) makes a distinction between two types of oxymoron: direct and indirect. The former represents a direct antonymic relation between a head noun and a modifier which are extremely opposite poles, i.e., hot coldness. The latter represents a relation between two expressions which are not direct opposite poles, i.e., watery dryness. In these examples, hot is the direct opposite of cold whereas watery is not the direct opposite of dryness. As far as foregrounding concerned, Shen (2007) argues that the indirect oxymoron is much more used than direct oxymoron. Paradox: it is defined as, A statement or tenet contrary to received opinion or belief; often with the implication that it is marvellous or incredible; sometimes with unfavourable connotation, as being discordant with what is held to be established truth, and hence absurd or fantastic; sometimes with favourable connotation, as a correction of vulgar error. (Oxford English dictionary). Similar to oxymoron, this device is central to foregrounding theory because contradiction is the basic feature of paradox. A paradoxical statement makes sense with more thought. Christ used paradox in his teaching: They have ears but hear not. Or in normal conversation, we may use a paradox 4.2 Devices of parallelism Assonance: it is defined as, the correspondence or rhyming of one word with another in the final (sometimes also the initial) consonant, but not in the vowel. (Oxford English Dictionary). Assonance can be described as a vowel rhyme as in the words  date  and  fade.   Alliteration: it is The commencing of two or more words in close connexion, with the same letter, or rather the same sound. (Oxford English Dictionary). Alliteration is commonly used for emphatic effects. It happens in everyday language in phrases such as tittle-tattle, bag and baggage, bed and board, primrose path, and through thick and thin and in sayings like look before you leap. Therefore, foregrounding theory uses such device to attract the concentration of the reader and emphasis certain points in the text. Antistrophe: it is The repetition of words in inverse order. (Oxford English Dictionary). For example:  In 1938, Hitler occupied Austria without warning. In 1939, Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia without warning. Later in 1939, Hitler invaded Poland without warning Rhyme: it is defined as, Agreement in the terminal sounds of two or more words or metrical lines, such that (in English prosody) the last stressed vowel and any sounds following it are the same, while the sound or sounds preceding are different. (Oxford English Dictionary). In poetry, the most common sort of rhyme is  end rhyme that occurs at the end of two or more lines.  Internal rhyme  happens in the middle of a line In conclusion, devices of deviation and parallelism are very central to the foregrounding theory. They are the main tools which should be manipulated by the writers to attract the attention of the reader and make him feel appreciate the experience of the text. 5. Advantages of Foregrounding Theory If foregrounding theory is very powerful in the literature of stylistics, what are the advantages of the application of such theory? Can foregrounding be practically useful? Or is it just a descriptive theory? This section discusses some advantages of the foregrounding theory. First of all, foregrounding in general and foregrounding theory in particular are very basic requirements to understand language and literature. Foregrounding as a style is based on a distinction between something and its background. In other words, it is all about making something prominent by making it different. For example, we can make an object in a collection of objects, such as toys, foreground by differentiating it with color, shape, etc. In the same way, we can make a string of words distinguished from others by implying foregrounding devices, such as devices of deviation and parallelism. Thus, foregrounding is a very useful tool in language to affect the readers understanding and appreciation of language. In general, this is the most obvious advantage of foregrounding theory in language and literature. Foregrounding effects are not only restricted to language. This powerful theory can be practically used as a method of language teaching as well. McInyer (2003) shows a detailed description of how foregrounding can used as a pedagogical technique in large-group teaching. Such teaching methodology makes use of internal and external deviation as a means of maintaining the effects of foregrounding throughout the whole lecture course. An example of external deviation is to have two lecturers instead of one in the class so that students will be surprised because such change is unexpected. In this case, knowledge of foregrounding theory is very important for higher education lecturers dealing with large-groups, as it could serve to highlight how the presentation of lecture material can be enhanced, so creating a more effectual learning experience for the student Foregrounding can also be important in translation. If we accept that fact that discourse analysis has its positive effects on translation, we should expect to have similar effects (van Peer and Hakemulder, 2006). Dorry (2008) argues that foregrounding theory with foregrounding since foregrounding theory is so much related to discourse analysis can be applied to discourse at levels of Syntax, lexicon and Phonology. At the level of syntax, foregrounding is defined as the process that involves placing a constituent of a sentence into the focus position so that it becomes more prominent than other parts of the sentence. Naturally, any change in the usual order of words in a sentence will be reflected on meaning interpretation in mind of the reader. In this regard, change can come through deviation from norms or breaking up the rules. Dorry (2008) points out that since translation is a process of text recreation in which translators do their best to communicate discoursal meaning across languages, the way additional or different meaning is created and understood, should therefore also be focused as well from a syntactic-pragmatic angle. This phenomenon which is the locus of foregrounding theory should be have a very careful attention in translation since understanding it can assist to process and perceive meaningful choices made by writers and speakers in the course of communication. Under this claim, translators should be fully acquainted with foregrounding theory and its devices in the source and the target language because translators should always be faithful to both languages. To conclude this section, we have seen that foregrounding is a theory that can be applied many disciplines simultaneously. It is indispensable when we study language as an artistic artifact and how it is perceived by the reader or recipient. Also, foregrounding can be applied as a teaching methodology which is based on unexpected techniques to strike the student. Finally, translators should have enough knowledge of foregrounding effects in the source and target language to stay faithful to the text they are translating. 6. Problems of Foregrounding Theory Foregrounding theory has been the most powerful theory in stylistics. It charmed many stylisticians who devoted their efforts to support this theory. Although this theory has such important position in the stylistics, it is still imperfect. Many critics have mentioned some problems that should be taken into account to render a developed version of the theory. Shen (2007) argues that since deviation in foregrounding is based on the interface of the literary text with the cognitive and communicative principles, and these two types of principles are constrained, deviation should be controlled as well. It looks strange that deviation in foregrounding is not constrained while its assumptions and principles are constrained. Therefore, we need to question the claim of unexpectedness of deviation. In other words, are all types of deviation expected? Shen (2007) discussed some constraints that can be inferred from the devices used in foregrounding theory. A detailed discussion of simile and o xymoron showed that some constraints can be imposed on deviation. However, such conclusion should be carefully considered because foregrounding escapes the routine of everyday language and shake the expectations of the reader by presentation of the unexpected. Thus, how can we constrain the unexpected? And how can we strike a compromise between novelty and constraints? Such questions should be considered when we discuss constraints on deviation. Other limitations of the theory are discussed by van Peer and Hakemulder (2006). The first limitation of the theory is related to the existence of enough evidence that supports the main claim of foregrounding theory; the grounding theory claims that the use of foregrounding devices increases the readers value and appreciation of the text. Unfortunately, this claim has not received enough evidence from research conducted in the foregrounding theory. Another important problem of the theory is the huge vagueness of its terminology. Such a problem is clear when we consider the very often used terms in the theory like estrangement, deautomatization, defamiliarization and foregrounding. Are these terms synonymies or are they different terms? Therefore, the terminology and principles of this theory and its relation to the psychological processes should be fully clarified. More importantly, this theory intersects with the principles and assumptions of other theories and constructs such as Surrealism and Absurdism. Therefore, the boundaries and assumptions should be differentiated from the assumption of other theories (van Peer and Hakemulder, 2006). A problem that has recently been considered in the literature of foregrounding theory is its scope. Some scholars are very fanatic and refuse to include oral or descriptive literature in the domain of foregrounding theory. Hence, they apply the theory to the written texts only, and they neglect oral and video/audio works. Van Peer and Hakemulder (2006) argue that this problem can be solved by integrating the foregrounding theory to the structure and interpretation of the work as whole. To put it differently, a more systematic and coherent version of the foregrounding theory should be developed to cover all genres of literary works. Another problem related to this theory is the distinction between literary and non-literary texts. The majority of literary devices discussed above are reported in literature. Also, the majority of studies reported in stylistics were conducted on literary works. On the other side of the theory, some theorists ((Jeffries and McIntyre, 2010) argue that limiting the scope of foregrounding theory to literary works is a hasty decision because the same devices can be applied to literary and non-literary works such as jokes, advertising and politics. In fact, Mukaiovsky (cited in Miall and Kuiken, 1994) addressed this problem and explained the difference between the two types of foregrounding. Foregrounding may occur in non-literary or everyday language. However such type of foregrounding is not systematic in design. Moreover, the main purpose of such language is communication and foregrounding is so much used. In literary texts, on the other hand, foregrounding is very common, systematic a nd structured. Here, the purpose of foregrounding is to deviate from everyday language and takes the reader to the unexpected to make him enjoy the aesthetic experience of the literary text. A more impressing solution to the problem is presented by van Peer and Hakemulder (2006) who distinguished between two cases of foregrounding: functional and non-functional. Only the former can be seen as literary while later is not a literary use of foregrounding. For example, when a writer uses metaphors or similes in a scientific report, the purpose is not to deviate from the expected and impress the reader. Here, foregrounding is non-functional. In literary use of language, on the other hand, foregrounding is functional and the general aim is to deviate from the expected and present the unexpected To conclude this section, foregrounding theory has its own problems. The scope of the theory should be clearly identified in terms of the text type (literary vs. non-literary) and form (written vs. spoken). Also, its boundaries should be discussed and assigned with regard to other theories and perspectives in the literature. Similarly, abstract terminology should be clarified and fully explained. Finally, deviation, novelty and constraints should have compromised in the course of the theory discussion. 7. Conclusion Foregrounding theory is required for the analysis of literary works and history. This theory yields the best conclusions in textual analysis that it is indispensable analytic methodology to describe the specific features and characteristics of any text and explain the poetic effects on the reader. It can be used in both literary and non-literary works, yet the function is different in each situation. By doing extensive research and exploring its rules and effects in cross-cultural texts, the study of literature and literary works will flourish. Foregrounding device, devices of deviation and parallelism, will lose their important value if they are not developed. Thus, their defamiliarization needs to be under continuous development and replacement. A critical problem of constraints threatens the basic feature of foregrounding which is novelty. Novelty is reached to by violation of rules, and violation is seen here as breaking up everyday routine. Therefore, how can we expect the unexp ected? How can we control and constrain deviation? Such question and enquires should be the main concern of researchers in this field. All in all, foregrounding is the best theory for innovation in literature because it gives unexpected forms of novelty and creativity.

American Needs a Medical School Application Loan Program Essay

American Needs a Medical School Application Loan Program For more than a year, a large part of my time has been spent applying to medical schools. I have dedicated much energy to prepare for and take the Medical College Admissions Test (MCAT), obtain multiple letters of recommendation from my professors, interview for a health professions committee letter of recommendation from my university, complete and submit the applications, and interview at various medical schools. Although this process proved to be a positive experience, the extraordinary cost of applying to medical schools poses a danger of limiting individuals with limited financial resources. Moreover, the lack of scholarship or loan programs to assist students with the application process further contributes to this danger. One of the first hurdles of applying to medical school is the MCAT. Although many students prepare for this exam on their own, a large portion of students choose to take preparatory classes offered by various private test preparation companies. These courses, which often cost in excess of $1000, teach students not only the basic concepts covered on the MCAT, but also helpful test-taking techniques unique to the MCAT. Thus, these preparatory classes may provide students with helpful advice and knowledge unavailable to those who cannot afford the classes. I attribute much of my success on the MCAT to these helpful hints; furthermore, many of my fellow pre-medical colleagues, who were unable to take the preparatory classes because of financial constraints, scored poorly on the exam. Hence, I believe MCAT preparation courses significantly increase one's probability of performing well on the MCAT, and, since these courses are out of reach for many... ...expenses should not impede a student's desire to apply to medical school and achieve his or her goal of becoming a physician. Although AMCAS and some medical schools have attempted to alleviate this problem by providing fee waivers or reductions, these efforts fall short of solving the problem of financial impedance to medical applicants. Many students from moderate income families cannot receive these fee waivers; moreover, their families cannot provide the $2000 to $3000 necessary to apply to medical school. Thus, I believe that the Department of Education, in conjunction with private loan companies, should provide low interest, medical school application loan programs. Through these loan programs, qualified students who lack necessary application funds, may rightfully apply to medical schools without facing the exuberant and potentially limiting application fees.

The Praise And Strife Of A Her :: essays research papers

The Praise and Strife of a Hero The definition of a hero is dependent on that society's beliefs, laws and taboos. There are heroes for all ages and for both men and women. Heroes have had changing roles since man wrote his story, and all have been the embodiment of each society, each civilization's ideals. Basketball superstar, Michael Jordan, largely affects the children of today that are enthralled with visions of hoop dreams. He inspires the young depraved ghetto child to rise up against his unfortunate circumstances. Possessing many noteworthy qualities, all heroes possess faults because they are human and all humans possess failings. Because heroes begin to fold and make mistakes as they are suddenly thrust into the awe inspired limelight, and because their pedestals are broken and discarded as the public craves to see the dirt underneath the hero. Heroes are a product of a society's perception of someone to be praised. To be able to praise a hero, that hero must not only be a marvel but that hero must also be humble. Failings in heroes are only natural, they are human and all humans possess faults. All human beings are born and die with character traits, which can be, at the most basic level, perceived as being helpful or as being harmful, depending on the character's viewpoint. People are regularly regarded as having traits ranging from the most trivial as being a perfectionist, to the most weighty, such as being a coward. These traits form the basis of human personality and define the individual's personal nature. Ideal heroes are perceived differently in different periods of history. In Chaucer's Prologue of the Canterbury Tales a worthy man is described. He is a chivalrous knight who prided himself on his own personal truth, honor, freedom, and courtesy. Chaucer's view of a hero is one who is without fault, truly the epitome of goodness. Heroes are also praised by society because the hero takes on much of society's own stress. Heroes are under severe stress and live a life of duress and begin to commit errors as the level of pressure begins to catapult. Heroes are continuously placed under pressure by all who surround them, convinced that the object of their attention can not fail under any circumstances. They grow self-centered and absolute followers of themselves and expect the same-undeserved treatment from others. As Beowulf often takes pride in his work, proclaiming that he slew Grendel, that he rescued the damsel in distress, without any help needed, or offered from any persons.

The Suffering of the Proud Essay -- English Literature Essays

The Suffering of the Proud Pride is a key to self-respect; however, when it goes to far, people forget that humility is a virtue too. In the play Antigone, pride plays a major role throughout, appearing as fatal flaws in both Antigone and Kreon, the main characters of Sophocles’s tragedy. For Antigone and Kreon, as soon as the stepped past the line of humility, they were doomed to fail. For example, Kreon became so proud of himself he refused to listen to others warnings and assumes the gods are on his side. â€Å"But didn’t that girl do wrong?’ ‘The whole nation denies it.’ ‘Will the nation tell me what orders I can give?† (Kreon, Haimon, Kreon 881-3) this is a perfect example, because he refuses to listen to his son, and then, when presented with the fact that the whole nation thinks he is wrong, decides that he doesn’t care what the nation thinks. Throughout the play, his advisor, Koryphaios, repeatedly gives him gentle warnings, and Kreon claims he is getting old, ignores him, or refutes him with points that only emphasize his out-of-control pride, such as, â€Å"Men our age, learn from [Haimon] (Kreon 876). He also assumes that the gods will go along with whatever he says, â€Å"can you see the gods honoring criminals? Impossible† (Kreon 364-5). This kind of attitude is something that appears in almost ever y Greek myth, the thought that the gods will side with them no matter what, and it always ends up biting them in the rear. Furthermore, Kreon holds his subjects in contempt...

High School Enrollment System

Chapter II Review of Related Literature These are the studies and documentation that were gathered which can support the proposed system and will serve as an overview of the presentation of the system analysis. The remarks that have been gathered show the demand for this kind of software. It not Just ease the burden of the users but also it gives the system consistency which only specialized software can provide. It includes the foreign and local studies. These data are important aspect in the development of the project. The following are the works the researcher have taken into consideration: Local StudiesHealth system around the world are now facing a crisis of personnel shortage, low morale, and fading of trust. This has led to loss of health workers, weakening of health services, and erosion of public trust in the health system. For the enhancing and effectiveness support from the government must apply to them definitely. 1 . Provincial Government of Vulcan District Hospital Info rmation System (THIS) The District Hospitals serve areas in the Province of Vulcan which are outside the catchments area of the Provincial Health Office, based in the City of Mallows . The THIS was piloted in Reaction M.Mercado Memorial Hospital (RUMMY) in Sat. Maria, Vulcan in the year 2003. To date, all the other district hospitals in Baling (Baling District Hospital), Hexagon (Emilio G. Perez Memorial District Hospital), Vulcan (Gregory Del Pillar District Hospital), Calumet (Vulcan Maternity and Children's Hospital), and San Miguel (San Miguel District Hospital), are starting to utilize the system in their daily operations. THIS transforms the administration of the district hospitals under the Provincial Health Office from manual to digital. The system automates transactions, linking data entered at the Admission Section or PODDepartment, the Pharmacy, Laboratory, X-Ray, Billing, Collection and Records Section. Inventory and supplies data are entered at the Supply Section. Becau se the system uses an integrated database, it reduces the volume of redundant paper files kept in separate locations within the District Hospitals. The centralized database also makes it easier for users to process and retrieve data. The THIS thus enables the hospital staff to deliver services faster in a more organized manner, more accurately, and more conveniently. They can now process data and provide feedback to clients.The automation has also decreased the time spent by staff on their routine work. The THIS provide a number of support services, Entry of Incoming Supplies, Requests, and Issued Supplies, Patient's Bill, Accomplishing Patient's Philately Form. Compared to MASH Record and Billing System include administrative services relating to personnel, supplies, inventory, and finances. The staff maintains an inventory of medical supplies and medicines. The billing section computes bills for patients. These support services require an organized management and presentation of d ata, accuracy in recording, computation, and reporting, and nonviolence of use. . Medical Center Manila Nursing Services Monitoring System Department of Health and accredited by the Philippine Health Insurance Corporation. Managed and operated by Hospital Management Services, Inc. (HAMS), MGM was established in 1967 by a group of distinguished physicians who were graduates of the University of the Philippines-Philippine General Hospital (UP-PUGH), headed by Nobel Prize Nominee and National Scientist for Nuclear Medicine Dry. Paulo C. Campus, made possible with the whole hearted support of Mrs.. Caseload Lori Dildo and Mrs.. Josephine Murphy-Conjuring.The Nursing Services Monitoring System will feature a network of computers that transmit and receive scheduled of nursing services. Access to the system is limited through password for ever user and user domain. A user must first log-in into the system before he can actually penetrate any module in the system. Main menu is displayed aft er logging in. The system feature the kinds of nursing services rendered to the patient as well as the schedule of these. Compared to MASH Record and Billing System, The MOMS focus only on the improvement of the quality of nursing services.The system aims at providing support for the nurses who are under heavy loads of patients. The MASH Record and Billing System is developed to improve the quality of services that the hospital can give to the patients. It utilizes a centralized patient record to connect the people and process that drive the business. 3. Philippine General Hospital Care System The Philippine General Hospital (PUGH) is a tertiary state-owned hospital administered and operated by the University of the Philippines, Manila, the University of the Philippines System's Health Sciences Center.It is the largest overspent hospital administered by the university, and is designated as the National University Hospital. It is located at Eremite, Manila in the Philippines. It is t he biggest hospital in the country with a 1,500-bed capacity. It is a mixed-use hospital, with 1,000 beds for indigent patients and 500 beds for private patients, and offers some of the lowest rates for patients and is generally known as the hospital for indigent patients. The computing history of the Philippine General Hospital has proven its capacity to maintain its vision to be premiere institution to take care of problems and related diseases.The Philippine General Hospital (PUGH) had been using a computer for its business operation, particularly for its Patient Billing. With the purchase of its first general-purpose computer, programs were developed automate the process of Discharging of Check-up Package Medical Patient, Notice of Additional Deposits, Balance Summary Report, Income Center Report, and Patient Directory. Access to the system is limited through password for every user and user module in the system. Main menu is displayed after logging in.It has management mechanis m that efficiently locates and monitors nursing human availability. The Philippine General Hospital Care System developed the automate process of Discharging of Check-up Package Medical Patient, Notice of Additional Deposits, Balance Summary Report, Income Center Report, and Patient Directory that is limited only to patients. Compared to MASH Record and Billing System, it improve the quality of services that the hospital can give to the patients and also manages the stock of medicines.It utilizes a centralized Inventory system to monitor and to prevent shortage of medicine availability. 4. Capitol Medical Center Record System the year 2003. Capitol Medical Center Inc. Hurst to digitize the medical records is a major step in providing the patients and medical professionals with a more efficient system of archiving and retrieving patient records. It is a user friendly and each record contain all necessary information related to a patient, from time of admission, diagnosis, to date of discharge, and procedures performed.This database will include no less than 40 fields in each patient's record that will make it wholly complaint with the reporting standards of Department of Health (DOD) and Philippine Health Insurance Corporation (PHILATELY). The CM record archiving system will have the ability to access the millions of records we now have in storage. Where it would normally take us three days to retrieve and print out a patient's medical records, the archive system can help us to dramatically reduce this waiting time to Just minutes.Compared to MASH Record and Billing System, The CM have the ability to access medical records in providing the patients and medical professionals that is limited only to patients. MASH Record and Billing System, improves the quality of services relating to personnel, supplies, inventory, and finances, maintains an inventory of medical supplies and medicines, computes bills for patients. This is a valuable tool for Hospital management. 5. Computerizing of Medical Record (COM) The developer Dry. Victor E.Pollack developed the software for keeping the medical records of the patients and for the fast and easy access of user in searching the information. The system implement includes the on-line computerized data handling system. The system has objectives to the successful computerized system which includes a demonstrated superiority to the current record systems in case of clinical SE while providing pertinent and complete information, and while recording important and unexpected complications or physiologic processes.The capability of improving the decision making processes in clinical data; the provision of a model for monitoring the quality of medical care, and on-line availability of the data at any time for clinical use and interpretation. The COM uses on-line computerized data handling system to access current record systems that is limited only to having an Internet connection that will be costly for a hospit al. Compared to MASH Record and Billing System, it allows the user to access, edit, check, print and store record of a selected patient without the use of Internet connection.Foreign Studies The Science and Technology of medicines has incredibly advanced from simple medical practices to computer-aided robotics that literally performs. The developers of this system expect the readers to be enlightened with vision of conducting more thesis that concern the innovation and creation of utility aids for the purpose of improving medical services. 1 . Patient Management Information System (MIS) MIS by Dry. Usury Bali is used by several hospitals in the U. S. Because of its functionality, efficiency and effectiveness.It was improved legibility and completeness of documentation, data with better accessibility and accuracy. The Patient Management System is a user-friendly, window-based system software that includes billing, scheduling and management reporting. It has additional modules that in terface to MIS includes collections clinical information and third party products. An effective information system of Patients in hospital is critical to the directly affected when are record are wrong or someone's are missing a file or record. The MIS will organize, systematize, and it will take care of the records.Changes in reimbursement rates and regulations for the outpatient rehabilitation industry are motivating clinic owners and administrators to find new ways to improve productivity, slash administrative costs and eliminate sources of claim denials. Connecting the people involved in these processes when they need it is key to improving your clinic's business performance. This study is similar to our research in a way they're objectives in making this system is the same. They both target to have a organize, systematize records. The patients will have accurate patient files.But on the contrary this system targets also on the unrelated studies and additional modules includes c ollections clinical information and third party products. While in the our system focuses only the patient and the hospital management that is much related to the study. 3. Hospital Information System of SCM Corporation This Creative Socio- Medics Corporation's mission in providing hospital information system is to deliver the best technology, application and services to the health and human services industry by Pill Chunk, Thomas You and Noah Schneider. CreativeSocio- Medics Corporation provides hospital information system and software, such as its Avatar Suite products to both the public and private health and human services, healthcare, medical system, plastic surgery, health development for integrating EMMER, managed care, Doctor Technology, computer systems Electronic Medical Record, Cross-platform. Well-known system such as this provides the hospital along with its employees and patients, much ease, reliability and functionality. It provides one place to go for referrals, pati ent intake and scheduling, clinical documentation, charge entry, insurance authorization and billing management.Comparably this system is the same with the research study we conduct. They both provide medical records of patient, billing statement, patient intake and scheduling by the use of computerized technology. On the other hand our research only focus on the medical problems. Likewise these system also focus on the Hospital Information that are not related to patients. 4. LLC – Hospital Management Information System Hospital Management Information System by Rowena Luck and Melissa Ho in Ghana, addresses the entire major functional areas of modern multi-specialty hospital.Package enables better patient care, patient safety, and efficiency and reduced costs. Provide easy access to critical information. The system provides the benefits of streaming of operations, enhance administration and control, improved response, cost control and improved profitability. Hospital Managem ent Information System is developed on the latest relational database system Visual Basic 6. 0. Hospital Management Information System can be easily customized to the experiments of any hospital. It helps in maintaining a totally secured database of Patients and business information.This system is GUI with user friendly screens and has an easy installation. Has an easy data retrieval with single mouse click and fully parametric billing structure with security features and Service provided by hospital. It can easily Back-up and restore facility without manual intervention. This system is very much related with our Basic 6. 0. And it also provide patient's record. The difference, is our system don't provide easy access to critical information that is limited to the Administrator but can be viewed by user. Some hospital prefer to restrict access of Patients personal Record because it is much safer. . Master Hospital Information System The Master Hospital Information System by Julienne Pays, Frederic Serviceman's and Gallinule Gingered help you ensure that your organization has a clearer claim before dropping the bill. Some hospital, medical groups, and other Healthcare organizations have installed computer system to manage patients information. This will give immediate access to complete patient information as well as tools to guide decision- making and help prevent errors. The complexity of outpatient data flow creates problems many hospital are endings extremely difficult to solve.Master Hospital Information System has develop a software solution to support outpatient coding and basic patient data management task. Hospital enjoy the flexibility of choosing the software modules they need and also implementing them in phases. The Master Hospital Information System provide patient information and bill limited only to patients. Compared to MASH Record and Billing System, it manages and monitor the patients and also deal with the stock of medicines. It has an Invent ory system to monitor and to avoid shortage of medicine availability.